Contents
1. Introduction to Biochemistry 1
• Study of Metabolic Processes 2
2. The Cell 4
• Cell Theory 4
• Structure of a Typical Cell 5
• Subcellular Organelles 5
• Transport Mechanisms 9
3. Enzymes 14
• Coenzymes 14
• Classification of Enzymes 15
• Factors Influencing Enzyme Activity 16
• Mechanisms of Enzyme Reaction 19
• Active Site or Active Center of Enzyme 20
• Enzyme Inhibition 21
• Zymogens 23
• Isoenzymes 25
4. Carbohydrate Chemistry 29
• Functions of Carbohydrates 29
• Classification of Carbohydrates 29
• Properties of Monosaccharides 31
• Reactions of Carbohydrates 33
• Modified Monosaccharides 34
• Disaccharides 34
• Polysaccharides 37
5. Carbohydrate Metabolism 41
• Digestion 41
• Absorption 41
• Glucose Metabolism 42
• Glycolysis (Embden–Meyerhof
Pathway) 42
• Gluconeogenesis 46
• Cori Cycle 48
• Glycogenolysis 48
• Glycogen Synthesis (Glycogenesis) 49
• Glycogen Storage Diseases 50
• Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
Pathway/Pentose Phosphate Pathway/
Phosphogluconate Oxidative Pathway/
Dickens–Horecker Pathway 50
• Glucuronic Acid Pathway 51
• Fructose Metabolism 52
• Galactose Metabolism 53
6. Regulation of Blood Glucose
and Diabetes Mellitus 56
• Blood Glucose Level 56
• Insulin 57
• Diabetes Mellitus 58
• Reducing Substances in Urine 63
7. Lipid Chemistry 67
• Functions of Lipids 67
• Clinical Applications of Lipids 67
• Classification of Lipids 68
• Fatty Acids 69
• Essential Fatty Acids 71
• Simple Lipids 71
• Compound Lipids 72
8. Lipid Metabolism 80
• Digestion of Lipids 80
• Absorption of Long-Chain Fatty Acids 80
• Beta-Oxidation of Fatty Acids 82
• Synthesis of Fatty Acids 85
• Ketogenesis (Formation of Ketone
Bodies) 88
• Ketolysis 88
• Metabolism of Triglycerides 89
• Fatty Liver 90
• Essential Fatty Acids 91
9. Cholesterol and Lipoproteins 96
• Structure of Cholesterol 96
• Biosynthesis of Cholesterol 96
• Importance of Cholesterol 97
• Plasma Lipids 99
• Cardiac Biomarkers 104
10. Amino Acids and Proteins: Chemistry 108
• General Functions of Proteins 108
• Amino Acids 108
• Classification of Proteins 115
• Levels of Organization of Proteins 117
• Denaturation of Proteins 117
x Concise Textbook of Biochemistry for Paramedical Students
11. Amino Acids and Proteins:
Metabolism 121
• Digestion of Proteins 121
• Absorption of Amino Acids 122
• Amino Acid Pool 122
• Urea Cycle 123
• General Reactions of Amino Acid
Metabolism 124
• Metabolism of Individual Amino Acids 126
• Nitric Oxide 129
• Branched-Chain Amino Acids 130
12. Inborn Errors of Metabolism 136
• Salient Features of Inborn Errors of
Metabolism 136
• Inborn Errors Associated with
Amino Acid Metabolism 136
• Inherited Disorders of Lipid
Metabolism 139
• Inborn Errors of Carbohydrate
Metabolism 140
• Inborn Errors of Nucleic Acid
Metabolism 141
• Important Groups of Inborn Errors of
Metabolism 141
13. Citric Acid Cycle, Biological Oxidation,
and Free Radicals 143
• Citric Acid Cycle or Tricarboxylic
Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle 143
• Biological Oxidation 148
• Free Radicals or Reactive Oxygen
Species 150
14. Plasma Proteins, Immunoglobulins,
and Tissue Proteins 156
• Normal Values of Proteins in Plasma 156
• Separation of Plasma Proteins 156
• Normal Values and Interpretations 157
• Abnormal Patterns in Clinical Diseases 157
• Albumin 157
• Globulins 158
• Transport Proteins 159
• Functions of Plasma Proteins 159
• Acute Phase Proteins 159
• Gamma-Globulins (Immunoglobulins) 159
• General Immunity 162
• Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
Test 165
• Special Proteins 166
• Muscle Proteins 168
• Lens Proteins 168
15. Hemoglobin 171
• Heme Metabolism 171
• Hemoglobin 176
• Abnormal Hemoglobins (Hemoglobin
Variants or Hemoglobinopathies) 177
• Transport of Oxygen by Hemoglobin 178
• Transport of Carbon Dioxide 179
16. Vitamins 182
• Vitamins in General 182
• Vitamin A 183
• Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol) 185
• Vitamin E 188
• Vitamin K 188
• Water-Soluble Vitamins 188
• Pantothenic Acid 193
• Cobalamin 195
17. Minerals 200
• Calcium 200
• Phosphorus 203
• Magnesium 204
• Sodium 204
• Potassium 205
• Chloride 205
• Sulfur 206
• Trace Elements 206
• Iron 206
• Copper 209
• Iodine 210
• Zinc 210
• Fluoride 211
• Selenium 211
• Heavy Metal Poisoning 211
18. Nutrition 215
• Calorific Value 215
• Respiratory Quotient 215
• Energy Requirements of a Normal
Person 216
• Proximate Principles 217
• Obesity 219
• Balanced Diet 219
19. Acid-Base and Electrolyte Balance 223
• Acids and Bases 223
• Mechanism of Regulation of pH in the
Body 225
Contents xi
• Acid–Base Imbalance 227
• Electrolyte Balance 230
• Sodium 231
• Potassium 232
• Chloride 233
• Magnesium 233
20. Liver and Renal Function Tests 237
• Liver Function Tests 237
• Clinical Manifestations of Liver
Dysfunction 237
• Tests Based on Bilirubin Metabolism 239
• Tests Based on Plasma Protein
Estimation 240
• Tests Based on Serum Enzyme Activity 241
• Markers of Obstructive Liver Disease 241
• Renal Function Tests 241
• Normal Constituents of Urine 242
• Abnormal Constituents of Urine 242
• Clearance Tests (Markers for Glomerular
Filtration Rate) 243
• Gastric Function Tests 246
• Fractional Test Meal 247
• Cerebrospinal Fluid 248
21. Molecular Biology 251
• Composition of Nucleotides 251
• Biosynthesis of Purine Nucleotides 253
• Uric Acid 255
• Gout 255
• De Novo Synthesis of Pyrimidine 256
• Structure of Dna 256
• Replication of Dna 259
• Rna 259
• Transcription Process 260
• Protein Biosynthesis 262
• Translation Process 263
22. Biophysical and Biomedical
Techniques 268
• Osmosis 268
• Dialysis 270
• Filtration 270
• Microscopes 271
• Electrophoresis 272
• Chromatography 276
• Recombinant Dna Technology 277
• Gene Therapy 278
• Polymerase Chain Reaction 280
Appendices 285
• Appendix A: Normal Values (Reference
Values) 285
• Appendix B: Recommended Daily
Allowance of Essential Nutrients 287
• Appendix C: Nutritional Value of Food
Items 289
Index 291